Abstract
The Antarctic seasonal sea-ice zone (SIZ) is one of the most extensive and dynamic habitats on Earth. In summer, increased insolation and ice melt cause primary production to peak, sustaining large populations of locally-breeding seabirds. Due to their hypermobility, large Procellariiformes, including albatrosses, breeding in the subantarctic also have the potential to access the SIZ and track macroscale resource waves over the Sothern Ocean but the extent to which they do this is poorly known. Here, we analysed the foraging movements of breeding albatrosses and large petrels (seven species, 1298 individuals) recorded using GPS loggers and satellite-transmitters to quantify their use of sea-ice habitats and test whether they tracked seasonal drivers of primary production. Foraging latitudes of white-chinned petrels Procellaria aequinoctialis and black-browed Thalassarche melanophris, grey-headed T. chrysostoma and wandering albatrosses Diomedea exulans varied sinusoidally over the breeding season, presumably in response to lagged effects of solar irradiance on primary production. Foraging latitudes of northern and southern giant petrels (Macronectes halli and M. giganteus), and light-mantled albatrosses Phoebetria palpebrata, exhibited no strong seasonal trend, but the latter two species spent ≥ 20 % of their time in the SIZ during incubation and post-brood, prior to or at the time of the spring ice breakup. Southern giant petrels travelled hundreds of km into the pack ice, encountering sea-ice concentrations up to 100 %, whereas light-mantled albatrosses remained almost exclusively in open water near the Marginal Ice Zone (MIZ). The remaining species spent up to 15 % of their time in the SIZ, typically from 5-7 weeks after breakup, and avoided the MIZ. This supports hypotheses that sea ice presents albatrosses but not giant petrels with physical barriers to flight or foraging, and that open-water-affiliated species use the SIZ only after primary production stimulated by ice melt transfers to intermediate trophic levels. Given that all seven species used the SIZ, it is likely that the phenology and demography of these and many other subantarctic-breeding seabirds are mechanistically linked to sea-ice dynamics. Declines in Antarctic sea ice predicted under climate change could therefore modulate and exacerbate the already unsustainable anthropogenic impacts being experienced by these populations.